Savannah River Site - A History of Progress

The Savannah River Site is spread across three counties - Aiken, Barnwell, and Allendale. To its southwest lies the river Savannah which separates the states of South Carolina and Georgia. The river site was constructed primarily to produce tritium and plutonium-239 which are the basic materials used in the fabrication of nuclear weapons. Apart from the reactors, the site also houses support facilities including two chemical separations plants, a water extraction plant, a nuclear fuel and target fabrication facility. It also houses various waste management facilities. The river site covers 310 square miles and employs over 10,000 people.

Savannah River Site - Its History and Significance

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The river site has moved away from its image of a "Bomb Plant" ever since the cold war ended. In fact the site's history could be a biography of its dedicated employees who have toiled over the years or even a guide which details the various processes which were performed. Currently the river site is owned by the US department of Energy. It is being managed by the Savannah River Nuclear Solutions LLC. Today the site aims to transform the past liabilities in the form of the river site set up to serve the nation in various ways including reducing dependence on imported oil and even enhancing national security.

Public Tours to the Site

Anyone is welcome to tour the site as long as they are U.S. citizens and at least 18 years old. Anyone visiting the site will be a part of a bus trip by the five reactors on the site which are L, P, C, R, and K and also the two canyons F and H. You will also get a Personal radiation dose chart apart from a map of the site, fact sheet and stationary. After arranging the tour four-six weeks in advance, your group would be expected to provide names, home addresses and Social Security numbers of each visitor in advance. Apart from that each visitor must bring two forms of identification - one must be a current and valid photo ID (i.e., driver's license, military ID, school ID, Passport). Whenever possible the site accommodates special requests for dates and times however no tours can be given evenings, weekends or holidays. The site is located 20 miles south of Aiken, South Carolina or 20 miles southeast of Augusta, South Carolina so you can get there from either of the places. You can even register online for a tour of the river site.

The City of Aiken is a beautiful and historic travel destination for a number of things and you are sure to enjoy a vacation even if it is a quick getaway or an extended holiday.

Savannah River Site - A History of Progress

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History of Women and Motorcycles

The motorcycle didn't spring full-blown into this world. Rather, it evolved from the earlier bicycle. Women loved bicycles for the mobility and freedom they allowed. In fact, Susan B. Anthony said, "The bicycle has done more for the emancipation of women than anything else in the world."

In the 1880s, bicycles were a huge fad. Then, in 1885, Gottlieb Daimler made one that had an engine. Strictly speaking, it wasn't a bicycle, because it had four wheels instead of two. Two were safety wheels. This bike went a magnificent and stately 12 miles per hour.

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An idea was born, and soon other motorized bicycles were invented. Perhaps the first true motorcycle was a charcoal fired two -wheeler made in 1869 by Sylvester Roper of Massachusetts.

Within two decades, motorcycles were being mass-produced. The first such bike was the Orient-Aster, which was made by the Metz Company of Waltham, Massachusetts. This state clearly loved its bikes. Another early cycle was the beloved Indian, made by the Hendee Manufacturing Company in Springfield, Massachusetts. (Later, the company changed its name to Indian Motorcycles.)

In 1902, Harley Davidson sold its first three motorcycles, and soon there were dozens of manufacturers. They had names like Marvel, Exelsior, and Henderson. The Depression killed off all but Indian and Harley, and soon only Harley remained.

Women enjoyed the motorcycles as much as they had enjoyed bikes. After all, they were economical and fun. They also didn't have the stigma that they acquired later. Early riders were seen as adventuresome, not as outlaws.

In 1915, Indian motorcycles offered front and rear shocks. Since these cushioned the ride, people began to consider long-distance travel as a real option. That year, a mother-daughter team, Avis and Effie Hotchkiss, rode from New York to San Franciso. They didn't take the direct route. Instead, they meandered about, covering 5,000 miles.

The next year, two society women in their 20s, sisters Adeline and Augusta Van Buren bought a pair of Indian Powerplus Bikes. They were the first people ever to climb up and down Pike's Peak. They, too, completed a transcontinental ride. Their 3,300-mile trip took almost two months, and they had to contend not only with many unpaved roads, but also with social mores. Once they were arrested for publicly wearing trousers.

In the 1920s, Harley published a magazine called The Enthusiast. It sponsored Vivian Wales on a 5000 mile trip to a Harley factory. Another early motorcycle heroine was Bessie Stringfield, a.k.a. the Motorcycle Queen of Miami . She made 8 solo-cross country trips and was a motorcycle dispatch rider.

Bessie had started out with two strikes against her: she was a woman and she was African-American. At first, she couldn't even get a motorcycle license in Miami, Florida. However, a police officer interceded in her behalf.

Motorcycles were also used in wartime, which gave them a lot of public exposure. About 20,000 Harleys were used during the WWI. They were ridden by couriers, soldiers, and others.

As motorcycle popularity grew, it was only natural that some people became highly skilled in its use. They showed off these skills in motordromes, which had been around since the turn of the century but grew in popularity during the 1930s. A motordrome often advertised itself as "A Wall of Death."

Essentially, it was a giant barrel with a platform on top for viewers. They could look down on motorcyclists, who sped around the inside of the walls, held in place by centrifugal force. One of these early daredevils was Margaret Gast, who billed herself as "The Mile a Minute Gal." She was not the only woman daredevil. May Williams and Jean Perry also performed on the walls.

By 1940, the United States had its first women's motorcyle club, The Motormaids. Today, there are scores of such clubs. Anyone who wants more information about the history of women and motorcycles may want to check out the book Hear Me Roar: Women, Motorcycles, and the Rapture of the Road. I haven't read it, but I've read several descriptions of it and seen the table of contents. It looks like fun.

History of Women and Motorcycles

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History of the Ancient City of Megara Hyblaea, Sicily

The ancient city of Megara Hyblaea is situated in south-east Sicily near Syracuse. It is popular with visitors hoping to learn a little of the ancient Greeks and their customs, and a history of the city is useful to help you make the most of your visit.

Megara Hyblaea was founded in the second half of the eighth century BC (according to tradition in 728 BC) by Dorian settlers, in an area where some existing Sicilian populations had already built their settlement called Hybla. Note: historically there were several places in Sicily that were called Hybla (eg Hybla Gereatide, Hybla Erea and Hybla Mègara) and it is not always clear which 'Hybla' the records are referring to.

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According to tradition, the founder of Megara, around the Gulf of Augusta, was King Hyblon, who welcomed the Megarians to his territory (although other sources suggest he had little choice...), who then founded Megara. It is said that the first inhabitants, known as Galeoti (who were believers of Apollo) were very adept at predicting the future, interpreting dreams and performing acts of magic and also that they were very superstitious.

The city developed with considerable attention to details and planning, with individual lots being entrusted to citizens for private homes each of the same size, while the Agorà was a free site set aside as a place of public assemblies (a model followed by the bastide town of south-west France 1600 years later).

The first development of Megara Hyblaea was so successful that the newcomers, a century later (628 BC), founded another very important city at Selinunte, another Greek outpost in south-western Sicily. The city based its business on the production of ceramics and on sea trade.

The Megara Hyblaea site has been identified in the plain of San Cusumano between Augusta and Melilli, and has provided many important archaeological remains (eg some traces of an ancient fortified village of the Neolithic period, foundations of three temples and ruins of a large building, city-walls and two necropolis).

From these it is clear that the city had a period of great splendour in the sixth century BC.

Over the centuries Megara Hyblaea had several difficult moments; and, in fact, was destroyed (about 482 BC) by Hiero (?-466), the tyrant of Syracuse. Reconstruction took place under Timoleon in the 4th century BC. The city was again destroyed by the Roman consul Marcellus in 213 BC who was besieging Syracuse at the time. According to tradition (but disputed by some scholars) Emperor Augustus (63 B.C.-14 A.D.) then rebuilt Megara and gave it the name of Augusta. This new city, however, did not arise exactly on the site of Megara Hyblaea, but rather it was built nearby where today we find the centre of Augusta and its imposing castle.

History of the Ancient City of Megara Hyblaea, Sicily

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The Real Von Trapp Family History - Part 1

Perhaps more than any other family in the world, the von Trapps' history has been immortalized on stage and screen and has captivated the hearts of millions of fans all over the world. No other name conjures up such vivid memories or ardent admiration as does the name "von Trapp". The legendary story of this musical family's escape from Nazi Austria is one of the best-loved tales in recent history. But have you ever wondered how much of story told In "The Sound of Music" is exactly as it happened in real life?

In her book, "The Story of the Trapp Family Singers", Maria von Trapp describes the turn of events which take her from Salzburg's Nonnberg Abbey to the von Trapp villa as a teacher, and ultimately into her new role as mother to seven growing children. As the movie depicts, Maria Augusta Kutschera was a postulate at the Abbey who caused a few problems for the nuns, and also taught fifth grade to the Abbey's schoolgirls. Her former life had been one of mountain hikes and constant activity, and she soon developed severe headaches as she transitioned into a cloistered life. Maria's physician advised that she seek a different lifestyle, and it just so happened that the Reverend Mother had received a request from a certain naval officer for an in-home tutor for his sickly daughter. And thus Maria embarked on her journey into the von Trapp household.

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Unlike the famous film's story, Maria was not intended to be governess to all seven children; but before long Maria's vivacity and music had brought all the children together in song and activities, and the obligatory separation of the age groups, which was typical for the upper class at that time, ceased to exist. As Maria's original pupil recovered, she became governess to all seven Trapp children and encouraged them in sports, handiwork, and, of course, music.

Contrary to general thought, the von Trapp children knew much of music, and the Captain is reported to have said that his children often did nothing but sing all day long. But Maria did introduce the family to many Austrian folk songs and taught them to harmonize the parts.

As Maria's stay with the family continued, the children and the Captain became attached to her and did not relish the thought of the day when she would return to the Abbey. A few things stood in the way of her permanency there, however. Firstly, the Captain felt obligated to continue his courtship with Princess Yvonne, the real life "Baroness Schrader" who was a distant cousin of his deceased wife. Secondly, Maria herself was not in love with the Captain and anticipated her return to her former life. But as matters moved along between the Princess and Captain von Trapp, he realized that he loved Maria and not the Viennese countess. So the day he had planned on proposing to Yvonne, he instead broke off their relationship with intentions of marrying Maria.

The Real Von Trapp Family History - Part 1

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The Ancient History Of Berry Improvement

Many of the berries grown today commercially were recently hybridized from wild berry plants and bushes that grew as native plants on many continents since ancient historical times, such as the strawberry plants, blueberry plants, raspberry plants, and leading to the development of hybrid berries grown today such as the Boysenberry plant, Loganberry plant and Youngberry plants that are crosses between, blackberry, rubus spp., and the red raspberry, Rubus idaeus, the latter hybrid berry plants have only been in existence for a short time. Most modern blueberry hybrid bushes have only been available as USDA releases for about 50 years, and the enormous berry plant production has created huge agricultural fortunes for modern growers of raspberry plants, blueberry bushes, blackberry bushes and vines and endless fields of strawberry plants.

It is well known that the raspberry plant was used as food in ancient cultures, and parts of raspberry bushes were used to make a medicinal tea. The strawberry tree, Arbutus, was described by the Roman writer, Pliny, in the first century A.D. Pliny also described the strawberry ground plant that was being grown for food to be used as a medicinal tonic in the first century A.D. Many Romans were not enthusiastic about eating berries from vines that grew near the ground, because of their fear of plague contamination by rats and snakes. Strawberry fruits were depicted in European paintings during medieval times, and were cultivated in gardens during the 1300s in Europe. Henry the VIII, King of England purchased some strawberry fruits to eat in the year 1530.

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During the 1600s a strawberry plant shipment was received in England from the American colonies and planted in backyard gardens. These Virginia strawberries, Fragaria virginiana, were tasty and delicious growing larger in size than the European strawberries. After growing side by side, the two species of strawberry plants inter-hybridized and grew into an improvement, remarkably, larger and sweeter berries than either of the parents. The offspring vines of these natural selections of strawberries were used to breed modern cultivar's that led to the extensive commercial growing of strawberry plants in the United States.

The noted founders of the first Botanical Garden in the United States, John Bartram in 1728 and was sent along with his son, William Bartram, in his book, Travels, were sent to explore the U.S. Southern colonies and to compile an inventory of useful native plant life. His encounters with "Brier vines.....rambling ....over fences and shrubs" records his familiarity with wild berry plants in the New World if the American colonies.

The first plant and tree nursery to be established in the United States was in Flushing, New York in the year 1737, by Willian Prince, who offered raspberry plants for sale, and in 177, he offered 500 white mulberry trees, Morus alba, for sale. General Oglethorpe in 1733 imported 500 white mulberry trees to Fort Frederica near Sea Island Georgia to suggest to the colonists, that there was an economical future for silk production. Mulberry trees lined the entrance to President Thomas Jefferson's home in Monticello, Virginia and were planted 20 feet apart.

The President of the U.S. Continental Congress, Henry Laurens, a native of Charleston, South Carolina, after the year 1755, introduced "olives, limes, ginger, (lilies) ever-bearing strawberry, red raspberry and blue grapes from the South of France, and he also introduced "Apples, pears, plums, the white Chasselus grape, which bore abundantly." The fruit that he raised from the olive tree was prepared and pickled "with a quality equal to those imported".

George Washington in 1761 moved to his Mount Vernon, Virginia, home where his gardeners cultivated berry bushes and berry vines.

William Bartram in his book, Travels, pg. XV, reports that mulberry trees were planted along the Georgia Coast, extending from Savannah, Georgia to Augusta, Georgia, and in 1766, "Every landowner was required by Law to grow silkworms and produce silk, but only a colony of Germans at Ebenezer, just up the river from Savannah were successful with this crop."

Near Mobile, Alabama, Bartram reported seeing in the year, 1773, "the forests, consist chiefly of Oak, Hiccory, (hickory) Ash, Sour Gum, (Nyssa sylvatica) Sweet Gum (Liquidamber styraciflua,) Beech, Mulberry, scarlet Maple, Black Walnut, Dogwood, Cornus Florida, Aescullus Pavia, Prunus Indica, Ptelea, and an Abundance of Chestnut, (Fagus castanea) on the hills with Pinus taeda and Pinus lutea."

Bartram reported that, (page 306) "visiting a plantation at Jacksonbug, that he saw a large orchard of the "European mulberry Tree (Morus Alba) some of which were grafted on stocks of the native Mulberry (Morus rubra) that were used to grow silkworms" for the making of silk garments. Bartram also found in 1773 red mulberry trees growing at Wrightsville, Ga. 30 miles from Augusta, Ga.

Reports of William Bartram discovering "fruitful strawberry fields, that he later enjoyed eating cream and strawberries served by his very agreeable, female Indian host. William Bartram discovered various wild species related to blueberry bushes, "Vaccinium varietas", growing in the Souther U.S. Colonies in great numbers.

Berries occur naturally in most areas of the world, even in the Arctic areas of North America; blueberry plants being the most cold hardy. Berries are known as being small fruits, and in ancient civilizations and were largely ignored to cultivate as a garden plant in favor of larger fruits, except for use as a health remedy. The flavor and size of wild berries was unpredictable and extremely variable in quality. Wildlife animals and birds owed much of their existence to food coming from berry plants, vines and trees. Mulberry trees are perhaps the best known ancient, historical tree berry, but even though the Babylonians loved the berries, the Chinese grew silkworms on the leaves. A great Oriental Silk trade development then opened up the Western products to the East and resulted in Mulberry trees that can begin bearing red, black or white berries the first year of planting, and the berry yields of these is so phenomenal, that they became a treasured economic fixture for ancient farmers. Such inventive plant hybridizers as Luther Burbank, USDA George Darrow, W.T. Brightwell, Otis Woodard and Max Austin have left a giant heritage of agricultural progress and national riches to those who love to eat, blackberries, raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, blueberries, and tree mulberries. These hybrid berries offer freshness, aroma, taste, and high yields of antioxidants that fight, strokes, heart disease, cancer and Alzheimer's memory loss and has transformed blueberries into a famous health fruit item; followed by blackberries, raspberries, and strawberry, because of the high berry content of ellagic acid, Vitamins and minerals.

Berries don't have an extended shelf life in grocery stores like most fruits, but they offer berry farmers great future profits from the expected high yields and early productiveness. Refrigeration improvement has extended marketability. Fast shipping improvements and harvesting advancements make berries a desirable inventory for stores to buy and sell. Pick-your-own fields of berries offer and opportunity for families to save on fruit buying and recreational enjoyment. Some pick-you-own berry operations will preharvest the fruit and berries for sale at roadside fruit and berry stands and at farmer's markets. Wildlife animals and birds sustain their growth by feeding on berries from the wild, native berry patches. Blueberries are available for wildlife, animal and bird food for many months, and wild berry plants growing on vines, bushes and trees, offer inexpensive wildlife food for hunters of wild birds and animals. Birds such as quail, dove and ducks can enjoy the cover and protection offered by the thorny blackberry bushes and from vines that climb and wind along fences at the forest edge. Since these berry plants are perennials, they regrow predictably and reliably every year. The berry seed when eaten by wildlife birds and animals can be spread by droppings and often will grow into new berry plants. Raspberry plants are usually rarely found in the wild state, but hybrid raspberries grow in many shades of colors of red, yellow, purple and black. Black raspberries are delicate and tasty but do not have the yields, cold hardiness or extended shelf life of the red raspberry. Most fresh red raspberry, commercial production in the United States has been dramatically increased because of the soaring demand by millions of satisfied berry tasters.

Copyright 2006 Patrick Malcolm

The Ancient History Of Berry Improvement

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The Rich History of Chrysanthemums

Did you know that those lush, colorful blooms called chrysanthemums are rooted in beliefs of human immortality and perfection? Today the "mum" graces gardens, cut flower arrangements and even salads (yes mums taste great), but they were taken much more seriously after T'ao Yuan Ming started it all in China around 500 A.D.

barnes and noble nook color

Over long periods of careful cross-pollination and selection, he developed stunning varieties of the flower and when he died, his birthplace was renamed Chuhsien. The City of Chrysanthemums. His efforts had produced a legacy that would bring pleasure to this world for centuries.

BARNES AND NOBLE

When China imported the first chrysanthemums to Japan, the people there bestowed many honors upon them. The Japanese wrote legends. To sip dew from the petals meant long life. To eat the flower meant immortality. Philosophers said that the systematic opening of the "ray" flowers symbolized both the sun and the perfection of orderly life.

By 800 A.D. the chrysanthemum had become so prestigious that only royal and noble families were permitted to cultivate it. Among the highest honors that could be bestowed in Japan was admittance to the Order of the Chrysanthemum... a reward granted to nobility for service to the Emperor.

In great contrast to this, the "mum" didn't make much of an impression when traders introduced it to Europe in the 1600s. But when in finally did catch on, it became one of the most popular blooms for both flower shops and gardens.

Today the mum comes in dozens of varieties. Fuji mums project rays with curly ends. Spider mums have straight-ended rays. Starburst mums have forked ends, while spoon-ended mums have a loop at the end of their rays. China mums are called "standard" and "football" because of their large, round heads. Daisy-like mums are called pompons. And those forming tight little balls are called button pomps.

Whether associated with spoons, forks or footballs, or with royalty or immortality, "mum" is the word for beautiful gardens and long-lasting floral arrangements. When you care for them as cut flowers, try to keep their ancient beauty away from such modern-day contraptions as air conditioning, TV sets and heaters. Don't place them in drafts or direct sunlight. Do watch their water, and replace it when needed. This way, a bouquet of mums can make your day every day for at least a week, maybe two.

The Rich History of Chrysanthemums

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The History Of the Masters Golf Tournament - A Legacy

The first US Masters event or the first Augusta National Invitation tournament was held in a 365-acre golf course situated in Augusta, Georgia. It originally used to be a farmland full of flowers and trees until it was taken over by the co-founder, Bobby Jones in the year 1931. Bobby Jones added great value to the beauty of the course and since its founding, Augusta golf course remains the envy of golf courses all over the world. The event is normally held in the first week of April every year. The history of Masters Golf tournament has witnessed 72 such consecutive events taking place, except for the 3 years when America was mired in World war II.

In its entire history, the Masters event at the Augusta national golf course is known for its conservative nature in regard to spectators. The founders of the tournament believed that the access to the golf course should be kept limited only to the playing golfers and their caddies. Even though these rules were relaxed with the passage of time, there is still a code of conduct in place for the spectators, who are often known as patrons here. Owing to the strict etiquette norms both for the players and the audience, US Masters is known to be a quite privileged golf event. Not only it is extremely difficult for a professional golfer to put up a good show and win the tournament here, it is an extremely challenging task even for the patrons to be in attendance. Even the practice round tickets are booked in advance for years and years and one needs to keep waiting in the waiting list before getting a chance to witness the spectacle that the US Masters offers.

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The History of the Masters Golf Tournament has an interesting lineage of traditions that are observed till date. It is these traditions that make competing at the Augusta even more special and memorable. One such tradition that is observed till date is the presentation of Green Jacket to the winner of the tournament. The winners are adorned in a shamrock green jacket, a symbol of membership at the Augusta National Golf Club. They are allowed to keep the jacket with themselves for around an year, after which it should be returned back to the management. They can also wear this green jacket while on the golf course. One such infamous incident associated with this green jacket is the Gary Player episode. He never returned his first green jacket after winning it in the year 1961. He subsequently won the tournament in the years 1974 and 1978 as well. Other renowned winners of the coveted title at the US Masters are the six time victorious, Jack Nicklaus, the four time champion, Arnold Palmer and of course Tiger Woods who became the youngest winner of US Masters at the age of 21.

The History Of the Masters Golf Tournament - A Legacy

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History Of Grapevines

The first documentation of grapevines growing in the Americas was discovered in researching the logbook of navigator Giovanni de Verazzano, who reported in 1504 that a large "white grape" was vigorously growing at Cape Fear, North Carolina. The English explorer of the New World, Sir Walter Raleigh, confirmed in a letter to Arthur Barlowe in 1585, the discovery of a white grape (scuppernong), when he landed in coastal North Carolina.

The 1500's ancient discovery of native grapevines growing in America was followed by numerous Spanish settlements along the coast of the United States where introduced old world grapevines were planted alongside the native American grapevines. That interplanting resulted in natural crosses of hybrid grapevines, a blending of the characteristics of both types. The French navigators were also exploring territories and lands surrounding Louisiana and were planting European grape vine varieties from the South of France, that also hybridized with native American grapevines. The English settlers established colonies in 1733 in Savannah, Georgia and Fort Frederica, on Saint Simon's Island, Georgia, under General James Oglethorpe, who was the first Governor of Georgia. These English colonies brought in seeds of grapes from Europe that were planted and grown in small farm vineyards. Those transplants intermixed with native grapevines that grew in woods nearby, and this intermixing resulted in new grape hybrids that were spread by the Indians and colonists everywhere. It is believed that these hybrids produced some selections such as Concord, Niagara, Catawba, and others that were identified as growing naturally in the woods by the great American explorer William Bartram, in his book, Travels, as Vitis labrusca by botanists today.

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Henry Laurens, who served as President of the American Continental Congress after the year 1755, lived near Charleston, South Carolina, and introduced olive trees, lime trees, everbearing strawberries, ginger, red raspberry, and blue grapes into the colonies to be grown for food. Henry Laurens was a good friend of John and William Bartram, the famous father and son, botanist explorers, and author of the book, Travels, in 1773. From Southern France, Henry Laurens introduced "apples, pears, plums, the white chasselas grape (vine) which bore abundantly." Laurens claimed that he raised the fruit of the olive tree that he pickled and explained was "equal to those exported."

William Bartram wrote in his botanical book, Travels, in 1773, that he left Augusta on the way to Savannah, Georgia, and viewed a plantation growing grapes. "Vitis vinifera, for wine, Vitis corinthiaca, for Currants, Vitis allobrogia, for Raisins, olives, figs, Morus (mulberry), for feeding silkworms, Citrus aurantium, Citrus limon, Citrus verrucosa, the great sweet scented Citron."

When crossing the Saint John's River in Eastern Florida, Bartram wrote that the "grape vines in this place were astonishing to behold." He wrote that the grape was "small and ill tasted" but the strength and bulk of the vines could be imagined to pull the giant mighty trees down to Earth, but actually served to uphold the trees since the 12 inch wide vines twined up the trees and then "spread along their limbs, from tree to tree, throughout the forest." In Alabama, Bartram wrote that the trees "were entangled with grape vines (Vitis campestris) of a particular species; the bunches (racemes) of fruit were very large, as were the grapes that composed them, though yet green and not fully grown, but when ripe they were of various colors, and their juice sweet and rich." Bartram wrote that the Indians gathered, dried, and stored them (raisins) as provisions.

Bartram identified on page 327 of Travels, the European grape, Vitis vinifera,

"Which ramble and spread themselves over the shrubs and low trees in these situations" and the Indians assured Bartram that the grapes would "produce fruit affording on excellent juice; the grapes are of various colours when ripe, of the figure and about the size of the European wine grapes".

This grape that Bartram identified as European grape, Vitis vinifera, could very well have been a hybrid cross with an American native grapevine.

Because of the introduction of the European grapevines into America in the 1500's, there was ample time for intermixing of species, so that taxonomists today have great difficulty of positively identifying a grapevine growing in the woods as a true native. There is a high probability that wild grapevines contain genetic components of European inheritance

Prince Nursery of Flushing, N.Y. Was established as the first American Nursery in 1737 and Robert Prince advertised "Lisbon and Madeira grapevines for sale, Vitis vinifera." It was interesting to note reports that Prince was unsuccessful in attempts to grow vines of wine grapes (European) due to "his inability to control a deadly fungus." It is probably that Prince thought the problem was a fungus, but most likely the problem was a pest, phylloxera, that was a small lice-like creature that ate the roots of European grapevines, Vitis vinifera, and once American grapevines were exported to Europe, most of the vineyards growing there were destroyed.

George Washington built Mount Vernon as his home in Virginia in 1754, where he planted extensive orchards and vineyards from which he picked grapes and dried them into raisins. They were a "Staple at the dinner table" of George Washington.

Thomas Jefferson planted extensive European grapevines at his vineyard at Monticello, Va., in 1807, but like many other gardeners and wine makers, he failed when all the vines died of phylloxera, but he replaced those vines with the native American alternative grapevine, scuppernong, Vitis rotundifolia.

Perhaps no other group of plants is known better than the plant tribe of grapes. The grape is known more for its ability to transform into wine, than for its desirability as a table grape or a desert grape. Some grapes contain so much sugar inside the skin, that they will not ferment in on the vine after ripening, but will turn into a raisin. The unique aesthetic quality of the grape is the capacity for producing juice. The juice may be used fresh or fermented into famous vines with distinctive aromas and flavors increasing into quality with aging, some lasting for centuries. The Roman wine makers put floating olive oil in the wine bottles to prevent the wine from oxidizing and fermenting further into vinegar.

Luther Burbank, the great American hybridizer in his 8 volumes of Fruit Improvement, made grape selections by hybridizing over 100,000 species of American grapes with European grapes and other species that he imported from various countries. Burbank's inventive work on grapevines demonstrated that the characteristics of grape production, taste, and many other factors can show great variations, depending on climate, conditions, and soil changes. He imported muscadine vines, Vitis rotundifolia, from the Southeastern United States where they flourished, but these grapevines were not satisfactory growers when planted in California.

Burbank spent considerable effort in hybridizing American grape species with Tokay grapes from Hungary and the ancient Syrian grapevines of the Bible. Burbank also imported the Thompson's white seedless grapevines in 1880 into California to hybridize with American grapevine species. He found it was an extremely productive, light-colored, strong-growing, yellowish white grape "that grew well in California vineyards."

It is obvious that historically grapes were found growing in America by European explorers, who brought European grapevines and grape seeds with them, that were considered to be superior to American native grapevines. European grapevines had been interbred for centuries with certain genetic weaknesses appearing, when American native grapevines were introduced into Europe, and the European vines faced total extinction until it was learned that the European vines could be saved by being grafted on top of American grapevine root stocks. The genetic characteristics of European grapevines were hybridized naturally when planted along side American native grapevines into new commercial grape selections. American plant breeders have achieved monumental successes in producing new grapes that are specifically used as juice grapes, raisin grapes, wine grapes, table grapes, and pick-your-own selections.

History Of Grapevines

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